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                <text>&lt;em&gt;A Manual of Fish-Culture, Based on the Methods of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries&lt;/em&gt;</text>
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                <text>&lt;em&gt;The Structure and Physiology of Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and Other Animals&lt;/em&gt;</text>
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;The series &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Animal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt; &lt;em&gt;Locomotion&lt;/em&gt;, published in 1887 and based on &lt;a href="https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-history/muybridge" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;Muybridge's studies at the University of Pennsylvania&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;provides an example of what could be achieved with the shorter exposure times of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0eIH69QWd8" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;gelatin dry plates&lt;/a&gt; and&amp;nbsp;the photomechanical process of the &lt;a href="https://www.moma.org/collection/terms/collotype" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;collotype&lt;/a&gt;. But, as scholars such as Marta Braun have pointed out, the photographs required manipulation and editing to render animal motion legible. To begin examining the editorial decisions that are apparent in Muybridge's studies, consider the different actions performed by men and women in the plates featured here. Also consider how many different views of the moving body each plate includes.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Muybridge’s photographs contributed to a discussion among artists regarding the representation of movement in painting, as seen in the work of artists &lt;a href="https://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/43938.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;Thomas Eakins&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href="https://philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/51449.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;Marcel Duchamp&lt;/a&gt;. Muybridge’s photographs have entered the art world in other ways as well, often appearing today on the walls of art galleries. For example, some of the plates from the original 1887 series are held by the the &lt;a href="https://www.artic.edu/artists/18883/eadweard-muybridge" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;Art Institute of Chicago&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;The copy of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Animal Locomotion &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;housed in Bruce Peel Special Collections is a facsimile edition published in 1969; by that time, the series was more likely to be studied by art historians than by scientists.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</text>
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                <text>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;The practice known as &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="https://history.nebraska.gov/blog/spirit-photography" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;spirit photography&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt; pushes the limits of what we consider photographic by seeking to represent the spiritual, rather than the physical and visible, on the photographic plate. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;The practice of spirit photography also points towards nineteenth-century tendencies to manipulate the image&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;—&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;a kind of photoshop before photoshop.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Though we don’t consider a belief in spirits “scientific” today, this practice holds similarities to scientific practices that have sought to capture what is invisible to the human eye photographically, such as &lt;a href="http://100photos.time.com/photos/wilhelm-conrad-rontgen-first-x-ray" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;x-ray photographs&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Muybridge’s &lt;a href="https://omeka.library.ualberta.ca/exhibits/show/photograpies/item/3153"&gt;motion photographs&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;Of course the extent to which each of these examples is manipulated to produce an image of what was previously invisible varies. One of the most well-known nineteenth-century spirit photographers is&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="https://thisiscriminal.com/episode-159-spiritual-developments-2-26-2021/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;William Mumler&lt;/a&gt;, who claimed to have photographed Abraham Lincoln's ghost.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt;You will notice that &lt;em&gt;Animisme et Spiritisme &lt;/em&gt;(Animism and Spiritualism) does not actually contain any photographs. Rather, it contains &lt;/span&gt;engravings&lt;span style="font-weight: 400;"&gt; based on photographs, attesting to the continued difficulties of printing photographs side by side with text in an efficient manner. Yet it is noteworthy that the texts framing the engravings insist on their photographic origins. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A full scan of this item is available through the &lt;a href="https://archive.org/details/animismeetspiri00sandgoog/page/n10/mode/2up" target="_blank" rel="noopener"&gt;Internet Archive&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</text>
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